The titles used by the Cholas; An Examination (Part-I)

While researching for the three articles that I wrote (1, 2, and 3 respectively), I came across the interesting titles the Chola Kings used - which to an extent, serves as witness to their achievements- military & otherwise. Another problem I encountered is with Western Historiography - the use of the "Royal Noble and chivalric titles" as used by Western Scholars cannot be equated to the titles used during medieval/late antiquity periods in European History. What title can you give to, for example, the Zamorin or the Perumal? Are they "Kings?" or "Petty Kings"? Or are they something else entirely? (More on the Problem of Western Historiography in a later article)
So what I'm attempting to do here is not only to provide a window to Chola History, but also [attempt] to provide a ready reckoner for the Chola Emperors ( I'm only examining the titles used by the Medevial Cholas, as even this seems to be a gargantuan task for me. See Note 1 as well)
Below is the list of  the Chola Emperors & their titles, till Rajaraja Chola the Great. 
Vijayalaya Chola (848 C.E. to 871 C.E.)
After the fall of the ancient Chola Kingdom, it is not known what happened in the interregnum; from almost 200 C.E. to 848 C.E., it is a dark time for the Cholas, thus, historians have used the accounts of the Pandyas and Pallavas, and it is supposed that they ruled the Kaveri heartland as tributaries/feudatories of the the Pandyas/Pallavas.
Vijayala Chola conquered Thanjavur from Elango Mutharaiyar who was the final ruler of Mutharaiyar dynasty. It is said that in the year 852 CE Vijayalaya Chola waged war with the Muttaraiyar king Sattan Paliyilli (826–852 CE) in the neighbouring east, and captured his territory of Thanjavur. While Vijayalaya Chola was a Pallava feudatory, the Muttaraiyan chief was a Pandya feudatory. Making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas, Vijayalaya rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur. 
He used the title  Parakesarivarman, a title meant in part to honour his ancestor, Parakesari. Inscriptions under his son exclusively refer him by this name. 
Aditya Chola I (871 C.E. to 907 C.E.)
It was under him that the Cholas overthrew the Pallava yoke and achieved independence. He used the title Rajakesari as his primary title, In Inscriptions, he is also called "Tondainadu pavina Rajakesarivarman", "The Rajakesarivarman who overran Tondainadu" Tondainadu, as those ardent fans of Crusader Kings 2 would note, Is the North-Eastern region of Tamil Nadu (see note 2)
The inscirption of his successor, his son, notes him as Thondaimaanaruur thunjina udaiyaar (The King who died at Tondaimanarrur), Tondaimanarrur being the Capital of Tondai nadu. It is thought to be near Sriklahasti, in Chittor, Andhra Pradesh. 
Parantaka Chola I (907 C.E. to 955 C.E.)
As his Grandfather, Parantaka Chola I held the title "Parakesari". As early as his Third Regnal year, he is beleived to have invaded and occupied the Capital of the Pandyas, having been given the title "Maduraikondan",and later is described as "Madhurantaka",the destroyer of Madurai - This is after he conducted a successful raid on the Pandya Capital.
After defeating an alliance of the Pandya & Ceylon kings, and after further conducting raid on Lanka, he is described as " Maduraiyum Elamum Konda Parakesarivarman" – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka. He utilized his war loot to cover the roof of the celebrated Shiva Temple at Chidambaram to be covered with Gold, for this he is described as "Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan". See Note 3 as well.
Gandaraditya 

The reccords of the next 30 years of the Cholas are scant; and thus what we know of it is rather skewed ( Reasons noted in Note 4). However, we can reasonably conclude that Gandaraditya used the title : "Rajakesari"  as well as "Merkey elundarulina devar" - "the king/lord who was pleased to go west"- for He apparently went to Kerala.
Arinjaya 
It is not known for a certainty whether Arinjaya, the third son of Parantaka Chola I ruled, historians assume that he ruled for a short period, in all probability, as an intermediary between his nephew, Uttama Chola I. Arinjaya is described as  "Alvar Arikulakesarideva" Rajaraja Chola I, his Grandson. For the Purposes of Clearly understanding the succession of Kings, see Note 5.
Sundara Chola (Parantaka Chola II)
He is credited with laying the foundations of the success his younger son Rajaraja Chola I- he defeated the Pandyas, and assumed the title of Maduraikonatan,  as his Grandfather, Parantaka Chola did. He and his son, Aditya Chola II, defeated and routed the Rashtraukatas from Tondainadu. His heir and Co-regent, Aditya Chola II Karikalan was assassinated, (which remains an unsolved mystery), and Sundara Chola is remarked to have died of a broken heart - given the title  "Pon maligai thunjina thevar" – "the king who died in the golden palace".
Aditya Chola II
Aditya Chola was co-regent and firstborn son of Sundara Chola, and was co-regent as well. He is remarked to have fought valiantly at Chevur, having, at the age of 12, "played with Veera Pandyan", the title given to him is"Vira Pandyan Thalai Konda Adithha Karikalan" - "The Adithya Karikalan who took the head of Vira Pandayan": Historians state that this does not literally mean he cut the king to size, but rather that he humiliated the King at the battlefield. He is also described as a "Vira Abhimanyu": A brave Abhimanyu, the famous warrior son of Arjun of Mahabharta. (The calligrapher uses a tecchnique which is rather ingenious: Abhimanyu, of course, was a ferocious warrior, who died as he could not escape the Chakravyuha; and he died. Here, Aditya Chola was a ferocious warrior, but his death came in the fame of the Chakravyuaha that was his assassination.)
Uttama Chola
Uttama Chola, the son of Gandaraditya, succeeded Sundara Chola upon his death. Sundara Chola's second son, Rajaraja Chola, was installed as his heir as compensation for being passed over. Uttama is described as Parakesari.  He also assumed to have the title "Vikrama".
Rajaraja Chola I "The Great"
Rajarja as I noted here, is one of the greatest Emperors of Indian History. His name is recorded at birth as "Arulmozhi Varman". He is said to have been elected by a democratic process, having served as heir-presumptive as "Yuva-raja" . He first attacked the Cheras at Kanathaur Salai, having used  the title "Kandalur -salaik-kalamautta", and "having beheaded the Malai Alargal", Malai Alargal being the Chera Warriors who must have defended Kandalur from the Chola attack ( For a more detailed understanding of the Kandalur War, see Note 6) . He also uses the title "Mummadi Chola-deva" which is thought to be "The Chola who had strength thrice over". He of course, took the title "Rajakesari"as his predecessors had.
After conquering/subjugating the Pandyas and the Cheras, he is called the "Mummudi Cholan" literally, the Suzerain of the 3 kingdoms: Chola, Chera and Pandya.
Rajaraja, by virtue of his tremendous success, is called a variety of titles in inscriptions.
He is also called "Keralantaka" for having subjugated the Cheras, and this Gopura is the Keralanthaka Gopura Constructed in front of the Brihadeeswarar temple:

the Keralantka Gopura

The other titles used by him are listed and its translations are listed in Table 1.

A tribute to the Cholas: Darasuram, A Personal experience.

 In the many tours I've had and the wonderful places I've visited, visiting the Airavatesvara Temple in Darasuram is an experience I'll never forget.  Built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th Century C.E., the temple is not as enormous as the other Great Living Chola temples- the mandapa is rather small in size. But what will surely take your breath away is the delicate features & attention to detail in the statues and figures around the temple. 

The Legend behind the temple goes thus:  Airavata, while suffering from a change of colour curse from Sage Durvasa, had its colours restored by bathing in the sacred waters of this temple. This legend is commemorated by an image of Airavata with Indra seated in an inner shrine. The temple and the presiding deity derive its name from this incident. Another legend goes that the King of Death, Yama also worshipped Shiva here. Tradition has it Yama, who was suffering under a Rishi's curse to form a burning sensation all over the body, was cured by the presiding deity Airavatesvarar. Yama took bath in the sacred tank and got rid of the burning sensation. Since then the tank has been known as Yamateertham.

The Entrance to the temple. Photo: Authour

When I reached Darasuram, I wasn't expecting much. The outer walls of the temple do not have much stonework on them,  The statues of small Nandis (the mount of Lord Shiva), were the only affluence afforded on the walls.

The statues of Nandi on the boundary Walls. Photo credits: Wikimedia. 

 The beauty that lies inside is given a hint in the ridiculously detailed Mahadwara (main entrance) int the east side through which we enter the temple.  As we step into the temple we are greeted by the grand sight of delicately carved statues on the rooftop, as well as on the pillars. Malaylees would be instantly able to represent the small Kodimaram.

The view as you enter; Photo; Author

I cannot possibly explain the beauty of the temple itself; I leave it to the photos I've attached, as well as the 360 degree view of the temple.
The Temple was built rather late into the Chera Empire's reign; by 1279, (i.e., within 100 years of its construction) the Chera Empire was subsumed by the Pandyas. Which makes this temple truly a wonder- it was not built in the best of times, but it exemplifies the epitome of Chola architecture and is rightly considered as a "Great Living Chola Temple", a UNESCO World Heritage.

The Famous Chariot; One can only wonder the quality & workmanship of these artisans.Photo Author.

My interest in these temples were piqued by my visit to them, and it opened a door of history about the Cholas that I was generally ignorant or dismissive. I would advice anyone even slightly interested in History to visit these places (Brihedesavar Temple, Darasuram Airatasevara Temple) to be transported to times past, to the glorious past of the Cholas.

I would think it to be my duty to add all photos I have of this beautiful temple, and I have attached it below.
I thought of ending this series at this, a personal experience of Darasuram, but while researching for this article and the others, (and partly motivated by my thinking of the problems of imposing Western Historiography on Indian History and my addiction to Crusader Kings II), my next article in this series will be on Royal titles used by the Cholas.  

Another View of the Chariot, note that there are sculptures below the Horse's belly,like the sculptors wanted to fit in more. Photo: Author

Yet another view of the Chariot.

The Elephants hailing one's entry into the temple. 

The View of the raised platform

Sculptures on the mandapa; the Ornate nature is visible . Photo: Aiuthor

A View of the main temple. Photo: Authour 

A Coronation (possibly) of Rajaraja Chola II, the Emperor who built the temple. 

Photo: Authour

The Main temple, a closer view 

Photo: Authour

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Thank you for your patience; Lord Vishnu (?) 

Photo: Authour

A tribute to the Cholas: Imperial Conquests

Continuation of A tribute to the Cholas: An Introduction. 

Rajendra Chola being crowned by Lord Shiva, the Cholas were devout shaivaites. 

Close up of Rajendra Chola I in the above image. Note the exquisite detail.  

Rajendra Chola I, succeeding his father in 1004 C.E. had an unenviable task: he had to first consolidate the Empire, with the increasing pressure from the north by the Chauklyas of the Deccan[1], as well internal discontent from the Pandyas and Cheras. He decided on his full accession in 1004 C.E. to overthrow the Western Ganga Dynasty[2], who controlled the areas up bank to the Kaveri, and took over their Capital, Talakkad. After a period of Consolidation, and Empire Rebuilding, Rajandera Chola set out to make himself the greatest Chola Emperor.

His eyes first turned to the south of his Empire: Sri Lanka had been weakened by years of Civil War, and his father, Rajaraja Chola I, had conquered a significant part of the Kingdom. He decided to finish what his father started. In 1017, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's( the then King of Sri-Lanka) crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India.

Next, he set out to quell possible rebellions in the Pandya and Chera lands; he appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya with Madurai as the headquarters. Then he checked the emerging Chauklyan Power, installing his cousin Rajaraja Narendra[3] as King in Vengi.

On to the Ganges

 

"Gangaikandacholan" inscription on the Sri.Brihedeswara Temple, Gangaikandacholapuram

 This is the most extraordinary Chapter in the History of Cholas; the feat that they may be most famous for. While fighting the Chauklyas in support of installing Rajaraja Narendra in Vengi, after defeating the claimant (Vijayaditya), he set out to punish the Kalinga & Odda (Modern Orissa). Rajendra Chola decided to cam near the Godavari River, and set out Araiyan Rajarajan, to capture more territories. Araiyan captured various forts in the way in Modern Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Orissa before turning East; He defeated the Pala King Mahipala I in a pitched battle; then, , Araiyan Rajarajan reached the Ganges and took some water with him on his journey back, meeting the Chola Emperor at Godavari, with much pomp and celebration.

He declared himself “Gangaikondacholan”(The Chola who took the Ganges) and built the new capital of Gangaikandacholapuram, whose magnificence and brilliance can still be seen now, almost a 1000 years later.

Making of the Chola Lake

The Cholaganga Tank. 

Rajendra Chola had now brought to the Chola Empire unprecedented peace and success; by his own control and tributaries, the Chola Controlled almost all of Peninsular India. At this point, a lesser Emperor would have settled for this; but not Rajendra Chola. He decided it was time for his Empire to project its power over the high seas and unto South East Asia. He set out his army in 1025 C.E. to conquer the South East Asian Empires in Indochina, subduing the Srivijaya Kingdom of Indochina and the Tambralinga Kingdom of the Malay Peninsula. The nuances of the involvement can only be talked about in the larger of Geo-Politics at that point: I am rather diverting myself to concluding on the Rajendra Chola’s achievement that is, turning the Bay of Bengal into a “Chola Lake”. This was not a farfetched claim, just looking at Rajandera’s conquests is enough.

He is one of the greatest monarchs to have reigned in India, and even in the world, his attempts to project power and influence over seas in the 11^th century is more or less unparalleled. Rajendra Chola surpassed his overachieving father, and took the Chola Dynasty to heights of power it will never experience later. He helped re-establish the Khmer kingdom, extending his support to Suryavarman I (some believe that his conquest of Indochina was meant to help him). When Suryavarman II requested help to build Angkor Wat, and Rajendra Chola promptly send artisians to build the largest Hindu Temple. He formalized a system of a panchayats, centralized a tax system and sponsored the extensive architectural works, and was a patron of the arts.

The Cholas rose to their height of power under Rajandera Chola, but his death did not end the empire, like so many others; it survived in some form until 1279 C.E.

Second Part of A three part (?? Maybe more) series: A tribute to the Cholas.

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[1] This were the western Chaukalyas, who shook of the Rashtrukutas to establish themselves as an Independent Kingdom in 973 C.E.

[2] The western Ganga dynsasty ruled over the Kolar-Talakkad Region, near the Kaveri.

[3] A member of the Eastern Chauklya Dynasty. 

Additional Notes
C.E: Common Era. 

References

"The Ocean of Churn:How the Indian Ocean shaped Human History", Sanjeev Sanyal, Penguin Random House, 2016

" A History of South India", KA Nilakanta Sastri, Oxford University Press, 1975

A tribute to the Cholas: An Introduction

A little over 10 months ago, I published a small article called The Lost History about how many Indians are unaware of the grandeur and achievements of the Chola Empire. This article can be considered as in continuum.

Of the three great dynasties[1] to have made Ancient Tamilakam[2] their home, the Cholas are arguably, the greatest. At its greatest extent under Rajendra Chola I, it stretched near to the Ganges in the north, to Sri Lanka in the south, to Indonesia in the East. The Cholas have left a great legacy in the form of their patronage to Tamil Literature, Arts as well as architecture. Today, the Great Living Chola Temples – Brihideswar, Darasuram (Airavatesvara Temple) and the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Chola Empire at its greatest extent under Rajendra Chola I

The Cholas were the first Maritime Empire, a Thalassocracy[3], as the Greeks would say. They were able to project their wealth and might way beyond the Indian Peninsula, playing an active role in Geo-politics in the Sumatras, and even maintained diplomatic relations with China.

Rajraja Chola I was the first true ‘Emperor’ of the Cholas: He assumed the title of “Mummudi Cholan”: ‘The Chola who is the ruler [Suzerain] of all three’ after conquering the Pandyas and Cheras. After vanquishing the Chera King, Bhaskara Ravi Varman the First, he heralded it as his first military triumph. From 994 to 1003 C.E., ( he was crowned in 985 C.E.), Rajaraja Chola expanded his territory significantly, adding Sri Lanka. Subduing the Chalukyas, and then conquering Kalinga[4]. In 1010, he started building the famous Brihideshwar Temple in Thanjavur. (The Temple was the tallest building in India until 1368, when the Qutub Minar was built.) The construction would have taken immense skill and ability from the ancient Indian engineers; the vimana[5] of the temple was hoisted by elephants, who traversed on an inclined plane that spread out for 1+ kilometres. In a rather somber tribute to him vanquishing the Cheras, he built the Keralanthaka Gopura, in the entrance to the temple.

Keralanthaka Gopura, Photo: Authour

Visiting the temple is surreal. Its magnificence and majesty of the temple is certain to awe any visitor. In this grand structure, the minutest of detail is sculptured. As one can observe here:

Lord Brahma(?), Keralantahaka Gopura Photo: Authour

and here:

An Asura, Keralanthaka Gopura

The Brihideswar was built to represent the power prestige and majesty the Cholas had acquired, and represent it well it does. Even the anointment of the Chola Emperor was done at the temple.

Rajaraja Chola I was the first truly great Chola Emperor, whose contributions should not be forgotten. He was, as the poets of the time note, Rājakesarī, “A Lion of a King”. His administrative reforms and patronage of arts are cornestones of his legacy. But nothing exhibits it like the Brihideswar Temple does.

The Brihideswar Temple, a view. Photo: Authour

He died in 1014 C.E., to be succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I(who was already co-regent from 1012 C.E.) as Emperor, who expanded the empire to even greater heights.

To be continued.

(A first part of a hopefully 3 part series: A tribute to the Cholas.)

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[1] “The Three Great Warring Clans” for the purpose here are The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, as envisioned in Sangam Era Literature. They were the “The Three Crowned Kings”, Mūvēntar. The Common legends, myths and history these dynasties share are unique. Which results in historian classifying their histories similarly. The Satyapuras, are not included in the rendition of Sangam History, and thus I have excluded them. I have also excluded the Pallavas and the Chalukyas as well, who at some point were suzerains of Tamil Land.

[2] Ancient Tamilakam include Kerala & Tamil Nadu generally.

[3] An Empire at sea; Greeks used it to describe the Minoan civilization.

[4] Yeah. The Kalinga  of Asokan fame.

[5] The Tallest part of the Gopura/Tower



Additional Notes
C.E: Common Era. 

References

"The Ocean of Churn:How the Indian Ocean shaped Human History", Sanjeev Sanyal, Penguin Random House, 2016

" A History of South India", KA Nilakanta Sastri, Oxford University Press, 1975